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Prepared by
DING YuewenTIAN JiayiLiang QiaoyaoLI XiangxuanMIAO Jiaming
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Mobile, Free,
Cosmopolitan?

Digital Nomads between Freedom, Commodification and Contestation

DING YuewenTIAN JiayiLiang QiaoyaoLI XiangxuanMIAO Jiaming
25 min talk5 min discussion
Website design by MIAO Jiaming
Source: Six core articles S1–S7 plus S19; full list on Slide 38.
Chiang Mai at night
Scene

A Morning in
Chiang Mai

  • A café full of laptops
  • Video calls to Europe
  • Editing videos, building websites
  • Many are foreigners
Working definition

Digital nomads use digital technologies to work location-independently while travelling; their income comes from outside the destination. 数字游民：靠数字技术远程工作、边流动边生活，收入来自目的地之外。

Source: Reichenberger (2018) [S1], Annals of Leisure Research 21(3).
?
The Big Question

Three questions,
one figure

01

Does this lifestyle really give people freedom?

Freedom to work, to move, to choose a life.

02

What does it do to the places where they live?

Rent, work, culture — and who pays for it.

03

Does living in many countries make someone a “citizen of the world”?

Mobility versus a genuinely global outlook.

Source: Reichenberger (2018) [S1]; Jiwasiddi et al. (2024) [S2]; Horst & Olsen (2021) [S6]; Ingram (2016) [S19].
Visual · Nomads.com

The Platform Behind the Ranking

Nomads.com membership page — the platform that ranks cities for a global community.
Nomads.com membership page — the platform that ranks cities for a global community.
Every destination is scored, filtered and turned into a “best place” list.
Every destination is scored, filtered and turned into a “best place” list.
Source: Nomads.com (2026) [S14] — commercial platform, screenshots for illustration.
Visual · Visas & the wider picture

Digital Nomad Visas in 2026

Digital nomad visa programmes: Philippines, Kenya, Nepal, Thailand, Georgia (2026).
Digital nomad visa programmes: Philippines, Kenya, Nepal, Thailand, Georgia (2026).
“The World Connected”: 43M digital nomads, top destinations and the challenges they report.
“The World Connected”: 43M digital nomads, top destinations and the challenges they report.
Digital nomad visa comparison — more programmes and durations.
More programmes, different durations — the visa landscape keeps expanding.
Source: rentremote.com / Nomads.com infographics (2026) [S14] — industry data, commercial estimates.
Roadmap

Four parts, one argument

Core argument

Freedom and cosmopolitanism are real possibilities, but structurally conditioned — by visas, income, platform rankings and market infrastructure.

01

Digital Nomadism

Work, freedom, and limits.

02

Neo-Nomadism

Mobility, commodification, social impact.

03

Cosmopolitanism

From moderate coexistence to contestation from below.

04

Comparison

Theoretical comparison, problems, solutions.

Relationship of the three

Digital nomadism is the empirical object. Neo-nomadism and cosmopolitanism are parallel theoretical lenses — practice-oriented and normativity-oriented — not nested containers. 三者关系：数字游民是经验对象；新游牧主义与世界主义是并列的两副理论透镜，不构成包含关系。

Source: Synthesis of S1–S7 and S19.
Visual · Policy

Proof of Residence, Not Just Income

Thai embassy notice: the DTV file now requires proof of permanent residence instead of proof of current location.
Thai embassy notice: the DTV file now requires proof of permanent residence instead of proof of current location.
The revised requirement also adds a police clearance certificate — entry windows narrow.
The revised requirement also adds a police clearance certificate — entry windows narrow.
Source: Royal Thai Embassy, Moscow [S12] — DTV supporting-document announcement, 2026 (official policy).
01

Digital Nomadism

Work, freedom, and the limits of both. 数字游民：工作、自由，以及两者的边界。

SpeakerDING Yuewen · TIAN Jiayi

Source: Reichenberger (2018) [S1]; Jiwasiddi et al. (2024) [S2]; UNSW BusinessThink (2024) [S3].
Definition & Boundaries

What Is Digital Nomadism?

DRAG →
Digital NomadClick / drag a fragment →
0 / 4 fragments placed
stays longer than tourists
works online
not a traditional expat
income from outside the destination

Working definition: Digital nomads use digital technologies to work location-independently while travelling; their income comes from outside the destination; they stay longer than tourists; they are not traditional expats.

Why it matters: internet enables work · Instagram performs the lifestyle · ranking websites direct movement · e-visa digitises entry.

Source: Reichenberger (2018) [S1]; Miguel et al. (2025) [S8]; Thai Embassy DTV (2026) [S11]; Nomads.com (2026) [S14].
Evidence · S1

Reichenberger (2018):
Holistic Freedom and Its Costs

Why choose location-independent work?

Professional freedom

Choose your work.

Spatial freedom

Not tied to one office or city.

Personal freedom

Live by your own values.

Cost

Interviews describe the effort of moving — finding housing, adapting, planning routes, staying productive. Freedom ≠ “no work”. It means deciding where and how to work, while managing more yourself.

“Work should feel meaningful — not just a duty to earn money.”

Study conclusion on how digital nomads present themselves on Instagram
Study conclusion: nomads show freedom, enjoyment and adventure — work-related posts are largely absent.
Source: Reichenberger (2018) [S1], Annals of Leisure Research 21(3); Miguel et al. (2025) [S8], New Media & Society (screenshot).
Structural limits · S11

Freedom Has Three Gatekeepers:
Visa, Income, Tax

Visa gate

Portugal’s D8

Requires income of at least four times the national minimum wage — €3,680 per month in 2026 (Lei 23/2007, art. 61-B; Decreto Regulamentar 84/2007, art. 31-A; figure confirmed against 2026 professional visa guides).

Income gate

Proof of work

Platform work must be provable; freelancers use portfolios (Fiverr, LinkedIn) for Thailand’s DTV.

Tax gate

Residency & contracts

Cross-border employment creates tax residency, contract-compliance and time-zone problems.

“Location-independent” work still depends on legal belonging and documented income.

Four real barriers: visa, proof of income, tax and labour compliance. 自由的四道现实门槛：签证、收入证明、税务与劳动合规。

Source: Portugal, Lei 23/2007, art. 61-B [S27]; Decreto Regulamentar 84/2007, art. 31-A; Thai Embassy DTV page (2026) [S11]; cross-border employment platforms (commercial sources).
Digital Lens · S14

Platform Rankings Direct Movement

SORT →

Drag to reorder — or Tab to a city and use ↑ ↓.

  • BaliScore 4.3 · ≈$1,500/mo
  • Chiang MaiScore 4.8 · ≈$1,783/mo
  • TbilisiScore 3.9 · ≈$1,100/mo
  • LisbonScore 4.5 · ≈$2,100/mo
  • MedellínScore 4.1 · ≈$1,200/mo
Your ranking ≠ platform ranking

⚠ Commercial estimates, not official statistics.

A website helps decide where thousands of people go.

Source: Nomads.com (2026) [S14], platform methodology and city data — commercial estimates, not official statistics.
Case 01 · Chiang Mai · Hub formation

Chiang Mai: A Nomad Hub Built on Cheap Infrastructure

If nomads can work anywhere, why do they pick the same places? Mobility is not random — it converges on hubs. 如果数字游民可以在任何地方工作，为什么他们偏偏选择同样的地方？——流动不是随机的，而是向特定枢纽聚集。

Low-cost living

15.8€ per day per person; about 949€ per month for two — exceptional value for money. 低成本生存：日均约 15.8€/人，月均两人合计约 949€，性价比极高。

Mature ecosystem

Nimman Road stacks coworking spaces such as Punspace and CAMP alongside jungle cafés. 成熟生态：尼曼路聚集 Punspace、CAMP 等联合办公与雨林咖啡馆。

The hub logic

Low cost + fast internet + coworking + familiar community → more nomads → more services → a stronger hub. 枢纽逻辑：低成本 + 优质网络 + 联合办公 + 熟人社群 → 吸引更多游民 → 催生更多服务 → 巩固枢纽地位。

Nimman Road, Chiang Mai — a jungle café used as an office.
Nimman Road, Chiang Mai — a jungle café used as an office.
Coworking and cafés along Nimman Road.
Coworking and cafés along Nimman Road.
Source: Slower Travels · “Chiang Mai Monthly Budget” (two people, 30 days) [S23]; photos: Nimman Road.
Case 02 · Bali · Lifestyle convergence

Bali: Tropical Landscape, Global Digital Community

If the only goal were work, why Bali? The destination also becomes a lifestyle choice. 如果主要目的只是工作，为什么选择巴厘岛？——目的地同时成了一种生活方式的选择。

Work and leisure overlap

Canggu and Ubud became global nomad clusters; Outpost and Dojo built mature coworking ecosystems. 工作休闲重叠：长谷、乌布成为全球游民聚居地，Outpost、Dojo 共享办公生态成熟。

Monthly cost

About $1,773 per month — rent 37%, eating out 24%. 月均开销约 1,773 美元/月，其中房租占 37%、外出餐饮占 24%。

Spatial logic reversed

Traditional: home → office → leisure. Nomad: apartment → coworking → café → beach → social life — all in one destination. 空间逻辑转变：传统是家→办公室→休闲地；游民则全部在同一目的地内完成。

Canggu beach, Bali — working from a beanbag by the sea.
Canggu beach, Bali — working from a beanbag by the sea.
Canggu — a global digital community.
Canggu — a global digital community.
Source: Slower Travels · “Monthly Cost of Living as Digital Nomads in Bali” [S23]; photos: Canggu.
Theme 03 · Co-working · Demand for space

Coworking: Why They Still Need a Fixed Place

Free of the office, why do nomads still depend on coworking? Location independence does not remove place — it changes what they need from it. 脱离传统办公室后，游民为什么依然依赖共享办公？——地点独立性并没有消除"地方"，而是改变了对地方的需求。

Hard infrastructure

Fast Wi-Fi, meeting rooms, stable power and comfortable desks.

Psychological separation

Splits “living” from “working” to keep remote productivity.

Social infrastructure

Networking events help newcomers plug into local networks.

Typical cases

Punspace / CAMP (Chiang Mai); Dojo / Outpost (Bali).

Takeaway: coworking is a hybrid of infrastructure and community — it gives mobility a fixed anchor without ending the movement. 联合办公是基础设施与社区的混合体：给流动一个固定锚点，而不终止流动。

A typical Southeast Asian coworking space: open desks, lounge and greenery.
A typical Southeast Asian coworking space: open desks, lounge and greenery.
Source: Toivanen (2023) [S5] — digital nomad infrastructure; photo: coworking space.
Theme 04 · Everyday · Spatial reconstruction

Rebuilding the Boundary between Work and Life

Once the office is decoupled, how does a nomad’s day actually run? 当办公地点解耦后，数字游民的一天如何运转？

Work becomes mobile, and the destination becomes a multi-functional complex. 结论：工作变得可移动，而目的地变成了多功能复合体。

Left: traditional worker vs. digital nomad across three dimensions.
Left: traditional worker vs. digital nomad across three dimensions.
Right: the timeline of a typical nomad day.
Right: the timeline of a typical nomad day.
Source: Authors’ synthesis — comparison and timeline of a nomad day.
Theme 05 · Institution · Policy response

Thresholds and Rules: States React

How do states govern a flow that sits between “tourist” and “worker”? 国家如何管理这种介于"游客"与"务工人员"之间的全新流动形态？

Thailand · DTV

Three months of bank statements, a balance of at least 500,000 THB, and a police clearance certificate. 泰国 DTV：近 3 个月银行流水，账户存款不低于 50 万泰铢，并须提供无犯罪记录证明。

Indonesia · B211A / E33G

Proof of annual income of at least USD 60,000 and a contract with a company registered outside Indonesia. 印尼 B211A / E33G：须证明年收入不低于 6 万美元，且与印尼境外公司签订工作合同。

Institutional shift

The old “tourist vs. resident” binary fails → states create dedicated nomad visas → high-value talent and spending power become a policy reservoir. 本质演变：传统"游客 vs 居民"二分法失效 → 国家主动推出专属签证 → 把高净值人才与消费力当作"政策蓄水池"引入。

Thai e-Visa: the DTV workcation requirements.
Thai e-Visa: the DTV workcation requirements.
Source: thaievisa.go.th (Thai DTV workcation visa) [S11]; imigrasi.go.id (Indonesian B211A / E33G) [S13]; Portugal, Lei 23/2007, art. 61-B [S27].
Theme 06 · Community · Temporary connection

Temporary Communities: Connection in Motion

If nomads keep changing cities, why do they still long to build a community? 如果游民不断换城市，他们为什么依然渴望建立社群？

Double paradox

High geographic mobility rises together with the need for psychological and social belonging. 双重悖论：地理上的高流动性，与心理、社交上的归属感需求，同时上升。

How it is built

Coworking space → offline community events and meetups → temporary social networks. 搭建路径：联合办公空间 → 线下社区活动与聚会 → 构建临时社会关系网。

Core conclusion

Nomads are not people who left place behind: they rebuild temporary communities again and again in different places. 核心结论：游民并非"彻底脱离地方的人"，而是在不同地方反复构建临时社群的人。

Origin of global digital nomads: USA 45%, UK 7%, Canada 5%, elsewhere 31% (Nomad List / Global Citizen Solutions).
Origin of global digital nomads: USA 45%, UK 7%, Canada 5%, elsewhere 31% (Nomad List / Global Citizen Solutions).
Source: Nomad List / Global Citizen Solutions — combined estimate, “Origin of Global Digital Nomads” [S26]; Jiwasiddi et al. (2024) [S2].
02

Neo-Nomadism

Mobility, identity, and commodification. 新游牧主义：流动、身份与商品化。

SpeakerLiang Qiaoyao

Source: D’Andrea (2006) [S4]; Toivanen (2023) [S5].
Theory · S4

D’Andrea (2006):
Post-Identitarian Mobility

Definition

Neo-nomadism = post-identitarian mobility: identity built through fluidity, rootlessness and aesthetic reflexivity, rather than through fixed anchors such as nationality or hometown.

后身份流动性：流动、无根与审美反思，取代国籍、故乡这类固定身份锚点。

Fluidity

Constant movement.

Rootlessness

No fixed anchors.

Aesthetic reflexivity

Identity built through lifestyle and taste.

Important limit

Fieldwork was with countercultural expatriates in Ibiza and Goa — techno, New Age, life outside conventions. This is not an empirical study of digital nomads.

Source: D’Andrea (2006) [S4], Mobilities 1(1), 95–119; D’Andrea (2007), Global Nomads (Routledge).
Theory · S5

Toivanen (2023):
Digital Nomad Infrastructure

Definition

Digital nomad infrastructure (DNI) = coworking, coliving, events, remote-work programmes, visa services, specialised housing, insurance and online platforms built for nomads.

数字游民基础设施：专为游民搭建的共享办公、共居、活动、签证服务与线上平台。

Mechanism

Infrastructure prescribes where to go, where to stay, whom to meet, and what an “ideal” nomad life looks like.

Outcome

Lowers entry barriers · provides social infrastructure · shapes routes and social relations.

Neo-nomadic life is turning from counterculture into a commercial model.

Source: Toivanen (2023) [S5], Mobility Humanities 2(2), 70–89.
Findings · S2, S3

Destination Impacts:
Ambivalent and Uneven

Chiang Mai — academic case
  • More coworking, cafés, local business chances
  • Knowledge sharing; better digital infrastructure
  • Gentrification, socio-economic gaps, cultural clashes
  • Separate social circles

The paper’s own word: “ambivalent.”

Lisbon — news evidence

Housing protests in Lisbon, October 2026 — residents demonstrated against soaring housing costs and the so-called influx of digital nomads (DW; Reuters). Contextual evidence only; the analytical claim rests on Jiwasiddi et al. (2024).

Policy implication

Residents’ interests · housing affordability · social integration · fair infrastructure use.

Source: Jiwasiddi et al. (2024) [S2], Information Systems Journal 34(5); UNSW BusinessThink (2024) [S3]; DW and Reuters [S21], October 2026 (news evidence).
Digital Lens

What Digital Technology Actually Does

CLICK →

Click any card to reveal what it actually does. 0 / 5 revealed

RANKS排序

Nomads.com ranks cities by internet speed, cost, safety, community → directs where thousands go.

Example: Chiang Mai #3
CURATES精选

Instagram shows freedom as leisure; hides work effort.

Example: beach, not laptop
CONNECTS连接

Groups can link nomads and locals — or make bubbles.

Example: workshops, events
GATES把关

E-visa digitises entry but hardens legal belonging.

Example: Thai DTV, Portugal D8
PACKAGES打包

Infrastructure sells ready-made mobility: coworking, coliving, visa help.

Example: Toivanen’s categories

Digital technology is not a neutral tool — it ranks, curates, connects, gates and packages.

Source: Nomads.com (2026) [S14]; Miguel et al. (2025) [S8]; UNSW BusinessThink (2024) [S3]; Thai Embassy DTV (2026) [S11]; Toivanen (2023) [S5].
Debatable Claim · 2

Commodification does not erase
counterculture — it relocates it

From lifestyle → to consumption choice. 商品化没有消灭反文化，而是把反文化从生活方式转移到了消费选择上。

1

Identity is fluid, rootless, aesthetically reflexive.

S4
2

DNI packages the lifestyle into a commercial model.

S5
3

Infrastructure lowers entry barriers but guides routes.

S5
4

Nomads still use “freedom” and “escape” language.

S5

Counter-argument: if everything is packaged, is the “alternative” still alternative?

Source: D’Andrea (2006) [S4]; Toivanen (2023) [S5].
Recap · Part 2

Neo-Nomadism — Recap and Limit

Identity is multiple, fluid, transnational — but D’Andrea’s evidence is not digital nomads.

Mobility is increasingly commodified by digital nomad infrastructure.

Impacts are ambivalent and uneven — benefits and costs fall on different groups.

Digital Lens

Platforms and rankings shape identity, not only travel. 数字视角：平台与排名塑造的不只是路线，还有身份。

Limit

Toivanen leaves open how nomads use, adapt or resist infrastructure.

Source: D’Andrea (2006) [S4]; Toivanen (2023) [S5]; Nomads.com (2026) [S14].
03

Cosmopolitanism

From moderate coexistence to contestation from below. 世界主义：从温和共存，到自下而上的抗争。

SpeakerLI Xiangxuan

Source: Horst & Olsen (2021) [S6]; Kirpitchenko (2014); Ingram (2016) [S19].
?
Question 03 · Cosmopolitanism

Citizen of the world?

Greek origin: kosmopolitês — “world citizen”. Everyday sense: openness to other cultures, concern for people everywhere. Does nomad life produce this?

Horst & Olsen (2021); Ingram (2016)
Working definition

A moral-political vision that coordinates multiple belongings — not complete detachment. 世界主义：协调多重归属的道德—政治视野，而不是彻底无根。

Source: Horst & Olsen (2021) [S6]; Ingram (2016) [S19].
Genealogy

Genealogy of Cosmopolitanism

Drag through the history of an idea. 拖动时间轴，穿越这个概念的五个阶段。

SCRUB →
KEY ADDITION

Stage 1 / 5 · ClassicalDrag the timeline or use ← → keys.
Source: Kant (1795) [S20]; Horst & Olsen (2021) [S6]; Ingram (2016) [S19], Critical Horizons 17(1), 66–78.
Theory · S6

Horst & Olsen (2021):
Moderate Cosmopolitanism

Definition

Transnational citizens = migrants who keep links with origin and diaspora. They can be moderate cosmopolitans: local belonging and global outlook coexist.

Transnational citizens keep links with origin and diaspora — and can be moderate cosmopolitans. 跨国公民：保留与母国及离散社群联系的移民，可成为温和世界主义者。

Case

Transnational migrants in Europe: live in one country, keep family and social links, join diaspora networks, care about public affairs in several places.

Pushback

Global South migrants are not “too tied” to family or religion to be cosmopolitan.

Method note: mainly conceptual; not about nomads.

Source: Horst & Olsen (2021) [S6], Nordic Journal of Migration Research 11(1), 4–19.
Normative framework · S19

Ingram (2016): Cosmopolitanism as Contestation

Core claim

Cosmopolitanism as plan, project, design → cosmopolitanism as process and practice of contestation.

Cosmopolitanism is not a plan or a design — it is a process and practice of contestation. 世界主义不是计划或设计，而是抗争的过程与实践。

Diagnosis

Existing cosmopolitanisms are often co-opted by dominant powers.

Reappropriation

Universal values can be reclaimed from below.

Consequence

To be universal, cosmopolitanism must be political and contestatory.

Focus: struggles against exclusion, domination and exploitation — judge by practice, not travel history.

SLIDE →
FROM ABOVEFROM BELOW

Plan / Project / Design

  • Legislator / elite perspective
  • Universal values may be co-opted by dominant powers
  • Risk: an ideology of domination
  • legislate · design · implement

Process / Practice of Contestation

  • Excluded and marginalised actors
  • Universal values reappropriated from below
  • Universalism must be political
  • challenge · contest · reappropriate
THIS IS OUR POSITION

Universalism is only real when it is contested from below.

Source: Ingram (2016) [S19], Critical Horizons 17(1), 66–78.
Our Extension — not an empirical finding from Ingram

Applying the Test to Nomads

Do not equate cosmopolitanism with
  • Number of countries visited
  • Passport strength
  • English fluency

Travelling a lot, holding a strong passport or speaking English is not the same as being a world citizen. 不能把“旅行多、护照强、英语好”等同于世界公民。

Ask instead
  • Do nomads join local workshops, events, campaigns?
  • Do they offer jobs, share knowledge, build reciprocal relations?
  • Or do they mostly meet other nomads, guided by platforms built for them?

Chiang Mai evidence: some nomads join local workshops and events and offer jobs to locals — a possible sign, not proof. Digital Lens: online groups can connect — but many platforms are designed for nomads → bridge or bubble?

Source: Ingram (2016) [S19]; UNSW BusinessThink (2024) [S3]; Nomads.com (2026) [S14].
Recap · Part 3

Cosmopolitanism — Recap and Limit

A genealogy, not one idea: classical → Kant → moral / cultural → moderate → contestation.

Moderate cosmopolitanism allows roots and global outlook to coexist.

Ingram shifts the question from identity to practice and contestation.

Digital Lens

Digital media works both ways — it can connect or isolate. Bridge or bubble?

Limit

Ingram is a normative framework, not a study of nomads; applying it is our extension.

Source: Horst & Olsen (2021) [S6]; Ingram (2016) [S19]; UNSW BusinessThink (2024) [S3]; Nomads.com (2026) [S14].
04

Comparison

Theoretical comparison, problems and solutions. 理论对比、问题与解决方案。

SpeakerMIAO Jiaming

Source: Synthesis of S1–S7 and S19.
Comparison

Neo-Nomadism vs. Cosmopolitanism:
Parallel Lenses

TOGGLE →

Neo-Nomadism

Focus
Practice: mobility, identity, markets, infrastructure
Key question
How is mobility organised and commodified?
Sources
D’Andrea (2006); Toivanen (2023)
Contribution
Explains social impact and DNI
Limit
Can describe without judging

Cosmopolitanism

Focus
Normativity: global responsibility, belonging, contestation
Key question
Under what conditions is mobility cosmopolitan?
Sources
Horst & Olsen (2021); Ingram (2016)
Contribution
Provides a test: does practice challenge exclusion?
Limit
Can judge without empirical detail

Parallel and complementary — not nested.

Source: D’Andrea (2006) [S4]; Toivanen (2023) [S5]; Horst & Olsen (2021) [S6]; Ingram (2016) [S19].
Problems

Problems: Nomads and Destinations

Problems for nomads
  • Visa and income thresholds
  • Tax residency and contract compliance
  • Time-zone mismatch and isolation
  • Platform dependence and ranking pressure
Problems for destinations
  • Rent and cost-of-living pressure
  • Uneven local benefits
  • Social separation and cultural friction
  • Public-management and infrastructure strain

Costs and benefits fall on different groups — so “good or bad” is too simple.

Costs and benefits fall on different groups —
so “good or bad” is too simple.

Click to continue →
Source: Portugal, Lei 23/2007, art. 61-B [S27]; Thai Embassy DTV (2026) [S11]; Jiwasiddi et al. (2024) [S2]; DW and Reuters [S21] (October 2026); Toivanen (2023) [S5].
Solutions

Solutions and Management Cases

Visa design

Income thresholds and clear work restrictions (Portugal D8; Thailand DTV) — note exclusionary effects.

Platform compliance

Cross-border employment platforms offer tax and contract support (commercial services; not neutral).

City policy

Housing affordability, social integration, fair infrastructure use (Jiwasiddi et al. 2024).

Japan case

Digital-nomad visa as “Designated Activities” (Notification No. 53): stay up to 6 months, non-renewable, remote work for a foreign employer only — Immigration Services Agency of Japan (MOJ).

Our normative criterion — Ingram

Judge solutions by whether they reduce exclusion and domination, not only by economic growth.

Source: Portugal, Lei 23/2007, art. 61-B [S27]; Thai Embassy DTV (2026) [S11]; Jiwasiddi et al. (2024) [S2]; Immigration Services Agency of Japan (MOJ) [S22], “Designated Activities” (Notification No. 53); Ingram (2016) [S19].
Conclusion

Back to the Café

  • The laptop user has real freedom — but the visa asks where she holds permanent residence.
  • She may have chosen the city from a ranking.
  • Online, she may show the beach, not her work.
  • The barista faces changing costs — evidence is mixed.

Would they ever really talk?

Our central gap.

Infrastructure

Internet makes the lifestyle possible.

Stage

Instagram makes it visible — selectively.

Gatekeepers

Platforms and visas decide who enters.

Answer

Freedom and cosmopolitanism are possible but not automatic: they depend on who may move, how markets organise mobility, and whether practice contests exclusion.

Mobility is the starting point, not the finish line.

Mobility is the starting point,
not the finish line.

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Source: Reichenberger (2018) [S1]; Ingram (2016) [S19]; Toivanen (2023) [S5]; Thai Foreign Ministry (2026) [S12]; Nomads.com (2026) [S14].
References · APA 7

Sources

[S1] Reichenberger, I. (2018). Digital nomads—A quest for holistic freedom in work and leisure. Annals of Leisure Research, 21(3), 364–380.

[S2] Jiwasiddi, A., Schlagwein, D., Cahalane, M., Cecez-Kecmanovic, D., Leong, C., & Ractham, P. (2024). Digital nomadism as a new part of the visitor economy. Information Systems Journal, 34(5), 1493–1535.

[S4] D’Andrea, A. (2006). Neo-nomadism: A theory of post-identitarian mobility in the global age. Mobilities, 1(1), 95–119.

[S5] Toivanen, M. (2023). Countercultural lifestyle no more? Mobility Humanities, 2(2), 70–89.

[S6] Horst, C., & Olsen, T. V. (2021). Transnational citizens, cosmopolitan outlooks? Nordic Journal of Migration Research, 11(1), 4–19.

[S7] Kirpitchenko, L. (2014). Locating cosmopolitanism within academic mobility. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies, 6(1), 56–77.

[S19] Ingram, J. D. (2016). Cosmopolitanism from below: Universalism as contestation. Critical Horizons, 17(1), 66–78.

[S20] Kant, I. (1795). Zum ewigen Frieden (Perpetual Peace).

[S21] Deutsche Welle & Reuters. (2026, October). Reporting on Lisbon housing protests and the influx of digital nomads.

[S22] Immigration Services Agency of Japan (MOJ). Designated Activities (Notification No. 53) — digital-nomad residence status; up to 6 months, non-renewable, remote work for a foreign employer.

[S23] Slower Travels. Monthly budgets / costs of living for digital nomads (Chiang Mai; Bali).

[S24] Channel News Asia (CNA). “More digital nomads calling Bali home, but this comes at a price for the island and locals.”

[S25] FazWaz. Chiang Mai Rental Price Index 2023.

[S26] Nomad List / Global Citizen Solutions. Origin of global digital nomads (combined estimate).

[S27] Portugal. Lei n.º 23/2007, art. 61.º-B (residence for remote work); Decreto Regulamentar n.º 84/2007, art. 31.º-A. Income threshold €3,680/month (4× the 2026 national minimum wage), confirmed against 2026 professional visa guides.

[S8] Miguel, C., Lutz, C., Majetic, F., & Perez-Vega, R. (2025). Working from paradise? New Media & Society.

[S3] UNSW BusinessThink. (2024, May 26). How digital nomads impact local communities.

[S11] Royal Thai Embassy — Destination Thailand Visa (DTV) page (2026).

[S12] Thai Ministry of Foreign Affairs — DTV requirements announcement (2026, August 31).

[S14] Nomads.com. (2026, October 31). Chiang Mai city data and Nomad Score (commercial estimate).

[S9, S10, S13, S15–S18] Supporting critical essays, reporting and commentary listed in the appendix.

Source: Full APA 7 list above.
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Source: Six core articles S1–S7 plus S19; full list on Slide 38.
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